The Age of Reorganisation Notes

Chapter: 6

The Age of Reorganisation

The Age of Reorganisation: The period after the decline of Mauryan Empire is also known as the ‘age of reorganisation’ by some scholars as the existing regions were being reorganised

into new kingdoms that were constantly competing to become powerful. The map of India

changed significantly in that age, as did people’s lives.

Pushyamitra Shunga: Founder of the Shunga Dynasty – Pushyamitra Shunga founded the Shunga Dynasty around 185 BCE, after the decline of the Mauryan Empire.

1. Background – He was a former general in the Mauryan army and came to power by overthrowing Brihadratha Maurya, the last Mauryan ruler, through a military coup.
   
   

2. Revival of Vedic Traditions – He worked to revive Vedic culture, supported Vedic sacrifices, and performed the Aśvamedha Yajña, a ritual symbolizing supreme power and sovereignty.
   
   

3. Political Stability – Although his empire was smaller than the Mauryan Empire, he managed to protect it from invaders and maintained peaceful relations with the Greeks after initial conflicts.
   
   

4. Short-lived Empire – The Shunga Empire did not last long; within about a century after his reign, it had disappeared.
   
   

5. Cultural and Literary Developments –
   
   

   • Sanskrit became a preferred language for philosophical and literary works.
     
     

   • The Yoga Sūtras were compiled by Patañjali during this period.
     
     

6. Art and Architecture – The Shungas patronised art and architecture. The Bharhut Stupa in Madhya Pradesh is a key example of Shunga art, featuring carved railings and reliefs depicting stories from the Buddha’s life.
   
   

7. Religious Patronage – Although Pushyamitra revived Brahmanical traditions, he also supported other religions, including Buddhism, as seen through monuments like the Bharhut Stupa.
   
   

Ashvamedha yajna: The aśhvamedha yajña was a Vedic ritual conducted by many rulers to declare their position as the king. In this ritual, a horse accompanied by soldiers was left to wander freely. Any territory that the horse crossed unchallenged was considered to become a part of the king’s empire. If any ruler stopped the horse, it led to a battle to determine supremacy.

Matrimonial Alliances: An alliance arranged through a marriage, generally between two members of royal families. In practice, this would often mean a king offering his daughter for marriage into the royal family of a neighbouring kingdom, with the intention of cementing an alliance between the two kingdoms.

The Satvahanas: Dynasty and Time Period – The Sātavāhanas ruled large parts of the Deccan region from the 2nd century BCE onward.

1. Geographical Extent – Their empire covered much of present-day Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, and Maharashtra.
   
   

2. Alternative Name – The Sātavāhanas were also known as the ‘Andhras’.
   
   

3. Capital Cities – They had multiple capitals at different times, the most famous being Amrāvatī and Pratiṣṭhāna (Paithan).
   
   

4. Economic Prosperity – Trade and commerce flourished during their rule, indicating a strong and prosperous economy.
   
   

5. Coin Evidence – Coins issued by Sātavāhana rulers have been discovered across India, from Gujarat (west coast) to Andhra Pradesh (east coast).
   
   

6. Maritime Trade – Many coins depict ships, suggesting that sea trade was a vital part of their economy and cultural exchange.

7. Agricultural Prosperity – Agriculture flourished in the Krishna-Godavari river system, providing economic stability to the kingdom.
   
   

8. Active Trade Networks – The Sātavāhanas maintained extensive trade relations, reaching as far as the Roman Empire.
   
   

9. Exports – Major exports included spices, textiles, sandalwood, gold-plated pearls, ivory, and other luxury goods.
   
   

10. Imports – The Sātavāhanas imported glass, perfumed ointments, and other luxury products.
    
    

11. Revenue from Trade – Tolls and taxes on trade provided significant revenue for the kingdom.
    
    

12. Economic and Political Stability – A prosperous economy and a peaceful political environment encouraged growth in other fields.
    
    

13. Cultural Contributions – The Sātavāhanas made important contributions to literature, art, and culture, marking a flourishing period in Deccan history.
    
    

Life Under Satvahanas:

• Sātavāhana princes were often named after their mothers.

• Example: Gautamīputra Sātakarṇi was named after his mother Gautamī Balaśhrī.

• This tradition may signify the high status and respect given to women, especially royal mothers.
  
  

2. Powerful Queens –

   • Gautamī Balaśhrī was a powerful and influential queen.

   • She donated land to Buddhist monks and had an inscription carved in Nāśhik, highlighting her role in governance and religion.
     
     

3. Naneghat Inscriptions –

   • Found near Pune, these inscriptions focus on a Sātavāhana widow queen who performed several Vedic rituals, including the Aśvamedha Yajña.

   • The inscriptions mention Vedic gods such as Indra, Chandra, and Sūrya.
     
     

4. Royal Donations (Dāna) –
   
   

   • The queen donated land, cows, horses, elephants, silver coins, and other valuable items to priests, guests, workers, scholars, and monks, reflecting a culture of generosity and religious patronage.
     
     

5. Use of Brahmi Script –

   • The inscriptions were written in the Brahmi script and included numerals that resembled modern number shapes, showing an early stage in the development of the Indian numeral system.

6. Cultural Significance –

   • These inscriptions provide insights into the social, religious, and cultural life under the Sātavāhanas, where both women and learning held important positions.

7. Religious Beliefs –

• The Sātavāhanas were followers of Vāsudeva (Kṛiṣhṇa), showing devotion to Vaishnavism.

• They also supported other religions and philosophies, including Vedic, Jain, and Buddhist traditions.

8.Religious Patronage –

• The rulers granted tax-free agricultural land to Vedic scholars, Jaina monks, and Buddhist monks to promote learning and religious practice.

9. Architectural Contributions –

• The Karla Caves near Lonavala (Maharashtra) were supported by the Sātavāhanas.

• These caves were monasteries for Buddhist monks, featuring majestic pillars and a stone stupa, all carved from a rocky hillside.

10. Social Insight –

• The example of the goldsmith sculptor reflects a diverse and skilled society, where people could pursue multiple professions and participate in artistic creation.
  
  

11. Decline of the Empire –

• By the 3rd century CE, the Sātavāhana Empire fragmented into smaller kingdoms.

• Causes of decline included weak central control and gradual economic deterioration.
  
  

12. Aftermath –

• The fall of the Sātavāhanas led to the rise of new regional powers, marking another phase of political reorganisation in Indian history.

The Rise of The Chedis:

• After the decline of the Mauryan Empire, Kalinga (present-day Odisha) re-emerged as a major power under the Chedi dynasty.
  
  

2. King Khāravela –
   
   

   • Khāravela was one of the most prominent rulers of the Chedi dynasty.

   • He was a devout follower of Jainism and was often called Bhikshu-rāja or “monk-king.”

   • Despite his Jain faith, he respected all schools of thought, promoting religious tolerance.
     
     

3. Udayagiri-Khandagiri Caves –

   • Located near Bhubaneswar, these caves were built for Jain monks.

   • They feature intricate carvings, statues, and spacious rock-cut chambers, showcasing advanced rock-cut architecture and craftsmanship.
     
     

4. Hāthīgumphā Inscription –
   
   

   • Found in one of the Udayagiri caves, the Hāthīgumphā inscription is written in Brahmi script.

   • It records Khāravela’s achievements year by year, including:

     • Military victories,

     • Public welfare works, and

     • Religious contributions.
       
       

5. Council of Ascetics and Sages –
   
   

   • Khāravela claimed to have established a “council of ascetics and sages” representing a hundred regions, promoting wisdom and learning.
     
     

6. Religious Harmony and Indian Ethos –

   • Khāravela is remembered as a ruler who protected and respected all faiths, reflecting the Indian ethos of tolerance, diversity, and universal respect.
     
     

7. Architectural Significance –

   • The Udayagiri-Khandagiri caves are notable examples of early Indian rock-cut architecture, an art form that would become prominent in later centuries.

Kingdoms In The South

The Cholas: The Cholas were a strong and influential dynasty that ruled parts of South India from the 3rd century BCE to the 13th century CE.

1. King Karikāla Chola –

   • Karikāla was one of the most prominent early Chola rulers.

   • He is said to have defeated a combined force of the Cheras and Pāndyas, thereby establishing Chola supremacy in the region.

2. Public Welfare Projects – King Karikāla Chola undertook many development projects for the welfare of his people.
   
   

3. Kallaṇai (Grand Anicut) –

   • One of his most famous projects is the Kallaṇai, also known as the Grand Anicut.
     
     

   • It is a water diversion system built just downstream of the Srirangam island on the Kāveri River.
     
     

4. Purpose and Impact –

   • The Kallaṇai was designed to divert river water to the central and southern regions of the Kāveri delta.

   • This allowed more land to be cultivated, turning the region into the “rice bowl of the South.”
     
     

5. Engineering Significance –

   • The Kallaṇai is one of the oldest water management systems in the world.

   • It has been restored several times over the centuries.
     
     

Cheras:

1. Identity and Region –

   • The Cheras were also known as the Keralaputras (meaning sons of Kerala).

   • They ruled over the western parts of Tamil Nadu and Kerala.
     
     

2. Capital City –

   • Their capital was Vanji, identified with present-day Karur in Tamil Nadu.
     
     

3. Cultural Contributions –

   • The Cheras played a major role in the cultural development of South India.

   • They encouraged Tamil literature and patronised Sangam poets.
     
     

4. Trade and Economy –

   • The Cheras maintained extensive trade relations with the Roman Empire and West Asia.

   • Their kingdom became a major trading hub exporting spices, timber, ivory, and pearls.
     
     

5. Historical Evidence –

   • Coins issued by the Chera kings provide evidence of their rule and trade.

   • These coins often feature the royal emblem of the Cheras, helping historians identify their legacy and trade connections.
     
     

6. Significance –

   • The Cheras were instrumental in connecting South India to global trade networks, shaping the region’s economic and cultural history.

the Pāṇḍyas:

1. Region and Capital –

   • The Pāṇḍyas ruled over parts of Tamil Nadu and nearby regions.

   • Their capital was at Madurai, a major cultural and trade centre.
     
     

2. Ancient Origins –

   • Their rule dates back to several centuries BCE, making them one of the oldest Tamil dynasties.

   • Successive kings expanded the Pāṇḍyan kingdom over time.
     
     

3. Foreign Accounts –

   • The Greek ambassador Megasthenes, in his work Indika, described the Pāṇḍyan kingdom as prosperous with strong administration and active trade links with Greeks and Romans.
     
     

4. Trade and Economy –

   • The Pāṇḍyas were involved in both international and internal trade.

   • Khāravela’s inscriptions mention that he received hundreds of pearls from the Pāṇḍya kingdom, showing its fame for pearls.

   • Pearls were an important luxury trade item in ancient times.
     
     

5. Naval Power –

   • The Pāṇḍyas were a significant naval power, playing an important role in maritime trade and defense.
     
     

6. Cultural Contributions –

   • The later Pāṇḍyas made major contributions to art, architecture, and the prosperity of South India.
     
     

7. Inscriptions and Governance –

   • Pāṇḍyan inscriptions highlight the kings’ concern for public welfare and their encouragement of all schools of thought and belief, reflecting religious tolerance and benevolent governance.

Sangam Literature:

Sangam Literature refers to the ancient Tamil literary works composed by poets and scholars during the period of the Sangam assemblies (around 300 BCE – 300 CE) in South India.

It is the earliest known body of Tamil literature and provides valuable information about the social life, culture, politics, and economy of early Tamil kingdoms — the Cholas, Cheras, and Pāṇḍyas.

Indo-Greeks

1. Origin –

   • The Indo-Greeks were successors of Alexander’s satraps (governors) who stayed behind after his retreat from India.

   • Over time, they established independent kingdoms in the northwestern regions of the subcontinent (modern Pakistan and Afghanistan).
     
     

2. Period and Region –

   • They invaded northwestern, northern, and central India after the decline of the Mauryan Empire (around the 2nd century BCE).
     
     

3. Cultural Interaction –

   • Although they arrived as conquerors, the Indo-Greeks were deeply influenced by Indian culture.

   • This led to a fusion of Greek and Indian elements in art, governance, language, and daily life.
     
     

4. Heliodorus Pillar –

   • Located near Vidisha (Madhya Pradesh), the Heliodorus pillar was erected by an Indo-Greek ambassador, Heliodorus.

   • The inscription on the pillar praises Vāsudeva (Kṛiṣhṇa) as the ‘God of Gods’ and lists three immortal precepts: self-restraint, charity, and consciousness.

   • It stands as a symbol of cultural and religious exchange between Greeks and Indians.
     
     

5. Coin Evidence –

   • Archaeologists have found many Indo-Greek coins made of gold, silver, copper, and nickel.

   • Coins typically show a Greek king on one side and Greek deities on the other.

   • Some coins, however, depict Indian deities like Vāsudeva-Kṛiṣhṇa and Lakṣhmī, showing religious assimilation.
     
     

6. End of Rule –

   • The Indo-Greek rule ended with the invasions of the Indo-Scythians (Śhakas).
     
     

Śhakas (Indo-Scythians)

1. Invasion and Rule –

   • The Śhakas, also called Indo-Scythians, invaded northwestern India after the Indo-Greeks.

   • They ruled from the late 2nd century BCE to the 5th century CE.
     
     

2. Śhaka Samvat Calendar –

   • The Śhakas introduced the Śhaka Era (Śhaka Samvat) calendar.

   • It is 78 years behind the Gregorian calendar (or 79 years from January–March).

   • This calendar was later adopted as the Indian National Calendar in 1957.

3. Historical Significance –

   • The Śhaka period marked continuity in foreign influence, yet strong integration with Indian culture—a recurring theme in the Age of Reorganisation.

Emergence of the Kuṣhāṇas:

1. Origin and Expansion

• The Kuṣhāṇas were originally from Central Asia.

• They entered India around the 2nd century CE.

• Their empire extended from Central Asia to large parts of northern India at its peak.

• Their rule marked a period of cultural intermixing and had a lasting impact on Indian history.
  
  

2. King Kaṇiṣhka – The Greatest Kuṣhāṇa Ruler

• Kaṇiṣhka was the most powerful ruler of the Kuṣhāṇa dynasty.

• His Brahmi inscription refers to him as “mahārāja rājadhirāja devaputra kaṇiṣhka”, meaning “Great King, King of Kings, Son of God Kaṇiṣhka.”

• His statue (1.85 m tall, now headless) shows foreign-style clothing, footwear, and weaponry, reflecting Central Asian influence.

• He is remembered for his military conquests and promotion of art, culture, and religion.
  
  

3. Coins of Kaṇiṣhka

• His coins often featured Kaṇiṣhka on one side and deities on the other.

• Significance:

  • Featuring both Buddha and Śhiva symbolizes religious tolerance and respect for multiple faiths.

  • Demonstrates syncretism—a blending of different cultural and religious traditions.
    
    

4. Trade and the Silk Route

• The Kuṣhāṇas controlled major parts of the Silk Route, connecting India with Central Asia and the Mediterranean world.
  
  

• This boosted international trade, bringing prosperity and cultural exchange.

• Goods traded included silk, spices, precious stones, ivory, and artworks.
  
  

5. Art and Architecture

• Kaṇiṣhka’s reign saw a flourishing of art, influenced by both Greek and Indian traditions.
  
  

• Two major schools developed:

  • Gāndhāra School (western Punjab):
    
    

    • Blended Greco-Roman and Indian features.

    • Used grey-black schist stone for intricate sculptures.

    • Famous for realistic Buddha images with flowing robes and human-like expressions.

  • Mathurā School (northern India):

    • Focused on Indian-style sculptures, often in red sandstone.

• These art styles laid the foundation for temple architecture in later centuries.
  
  

6. Religion and Culture

• The Kuṣhāṇas promoted religious harmony—supporting Buddhism, Hinduism, and local faiths.

• Their rule witnessed the rise of anthropomorphic (human-like) depictions of deities, such as Sūrya (the Sun God).

• The fusion of Indian and Greek traditions reflected a peaceful coexistence of diverse beliefs.
  
  

7. Legacy

• The Kuṣhāṇa Empire symbolized cultural synthesis, religious tolerance, and global trade links.

• They helped spread Buddhism to Central Asia and China through the Silk Route.

Their artistic and architectural innovations influenced Indian culture for